A catalyst refers to a substance that increases the rate of a reaction without changing the overall standard Gibbs free energy change of the reaction. Ligands represent atoms, molecules, and ions that can bond with a central atom (metal or metalloid). In general, ligands will donate at least one electron when participating in a bond. Two-phase catalysis of catalysts and ligands is the first application in the field of fluorine chemistry. The method of self-fluorine two-phase catalysis has developed rapidly, and a large number of new fluorine-based catalysts and ligands (especially phosphines) have been obtained in the field of chemistry.
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Fluorene is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon insoluble in water and soluble in many organic solvents. Fluorenes are one of the most important fluorescent molecules with applications in polymers, electronic devices, sensors, and photochromic materials.
Amino acids are organic compounds containing a basic amino group and an acidic carboxyl group. Because amino acids contain both amino and carboxyl groups, they can be polymerized in an end-to-end manner, removing a molecule of water to form a covalent amide bond or peptide bond. Many amino acids are linked together end to end to form a polypeptide. Amino acids and peptides are important components in the fields of medicine and life sciences.